Chicanery in the food supply chain! food fraud, mitigation, and research needs in low-income countries

Abstract

Background: Food fraud poses severe economic and human health risks, and an increasing body of evidence exists on the topic in low-income countries (LICs). Yet, compared to developed countries, comprehensive reviews on food fraud in LICs are still missing. Scope and approach: The current paper is the first comprehensive review to discuss the drivers of food fraud, food fraud practices, human health risks, detection methods, mitigation, and future directions in LICs. The study applied a combination of quantitative and qualitative methods to retrieve and analyse a large body of evidence on food fraud in LICs. Key findings and conclusions: The key drivers of food fraud include: (i) weak and poorly enforced regulations and policies coupled with corruption, (ii) poor or lack of effective surveillance systems, (iii) economic/financial constraints, and (iv) demand exceeding supply. The various food fraud practices reported in LICs are discussed, but food adulteration dominates. Anecdotal evidence points to several other forms of food fraud. A comparative discussion of food fraud in LICs versus their developed counterparts is presented. The food fraud detection methods, including conventional analytical ones, and molecular forensics are presented. The human health risks of food fraud include poisoning due to acute and chronic exposure, allergies, and impacts on human nutrition. A mitigation strategy entailing vulnerability assessment, and preventive and control measures is proposed. The challenges of addressing food fraud in low-income settings are discussed. Finally, future research directions and perspectives comprising of ten key knowledge gaps and perspectives are highlighted.